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The main objective of this research was to conduct a deep and systematic analysis of the functions of propaganda symbols used by the Umayyads in the process of acquiring
and consolidating the legitimacy of the caliphate. The Umayyad period (41-132 A.H) is considered one of the most sensitive periods in Islamic history, because during this period, the transfer of power through a hereditary and monarchical system became common. This development created a deep gap in political legitimacy; A gap that the founder of this dynasty, Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, understood well. Despite their long family history in Mecca, the Umayyads were generally among the opponents or the reluctant people after
the migration of the Prophet (PBUH) and especially during the early conquests and their acceptance of Islam came about after the conquest of Mecca (8 A.H). This history made their traditional legitimacy based on piety and weak faith. Therefore, the survival of authority of Umayyads depended on the creation of a new political-ideological legitimacy that would present the power of commandment as a divine right, legal and necessary for the preservation of the Islamic nation. Power is fragile without acceptance and obedience along with legitimacy among the masses of the people. This necessity led the Umayyads to make extensive use of propaganda tools. The most effective of these tools was the use of symbols. The results of the research show that Muawiyah's strategy was based on the centrality of seeking revenge against Othman, which acted as a powerful emotional symbol. This approach placed Muawiyah in the position of a legitimate avenger and protector of the rights of the murdered caliph and justified the negation of the caliphate
of Imam Ali (AS). Umayyad propaganda policies were a multifaceted system that simultaneously targeted several layers of legitimacy (historical, emotional, and religious). This propaganda is divided into two main categories:
Visual symbols: These symbols directly targeted the audience's visual senses and had a high permanence; because the visual repetition of an object or event has a deeper impact than just hearing it.
A. Othman’s bloody shirt (symbol of oppression and justice): The most important and enduring of these symbols was Othman’s bloody shirt. This symbol was the embodiment of the alleged oppression inflicted on the third caliph and a reason for Muawiyah's military and political movement.
- Psychological function: The power of this symbol lay in evoking anger, grief, and a sense of public justice. In a culture where the honor of the ruler and his blood money were considered very important, Othman’s blood became a sacred debt that only Muawiyah could claim.
- Political function: This symbol provided legitimacy for the Battle of Siffin. By displaying Othman’s clothing in the squares and gatherings, Muawiyah indirectly questioned Ali's claim to the legitimacy of his caliphate at that time and accused him of ignoring blood feuds.
B. The Quran and the Prophetic Legacy (Owning the Religious Heritage): The Umayyads were in dire need of making up for their history of not participating in the early days of Islam. This was done through the physical appropriation of symbols associated with the Prophet (PBUH):
- The use of tools such as the Prophet’s (PBUH) robe, staff, and flags was a deliberate attempt to convey the idea that the Umayyad Caliphate was the continuation of the Prophet’s (PBUH) path.
- Impact on legitimacy: These symbols attempted to convey that even though the Umayyads had lined up against the Prophet (PBUH) at the beginning of Islam, they were now the legitimate heirs of divine power and the guardians of the prophetic trust.
C. The severed finger of Othman’s wife (a symbol of the tragedy and personalization of the calamity): Other symbols were also used to emphasize the violent nature of Othman’s death. The severed finger of Othman’s wife, whose hand had been cut off during the attack on Othman’s house, was an example of a physical symbol that had a direct and violent impact on the emotions of the people of Hejaz and Iraq. This symbol made the tragedy more personal and tangible, and facilitated the stirring of emotions.
2) Verbal-auditory symbols: This category included linguistic devices that were popularized through oratory, poetry, and epithets and were vital for ideological indoctrination in public gatherings.
A. Official slogans and epithets (ideological branding): One of the most effective propaganda functions was to establish the new identity of the ruling dynasty through language.
- Government epithets: epithets that were created for the Umayyad dynasty, as well as derogatory epithets that were issued to rivals.
- Slogan writing: Political slogans that were repeated in gatherings and on pulpits played an effective role in shaping public discourse. The frequent repetition of these slogans gradually made the Umayyad legitimacy an undeniable fact in the public mind.
B. Alternative narratives and interpretive hadiths: In the absence of legitimacy based on solid religious precedents, the Umayyads resorted to active narrative construction:




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- Selective use of hadiths: The selective or distorted use of prophetic hadiths to validate the ruler's position. For example, the emphasis on the hadith "If you pledge allegiance to two caliphs, then kill the last of them", so that allegiance to Yazid, even after Muawiyah's death, was considered legitimate and uprisings against it were considered a departure from religious order.
- Emphasis on the necessity of order: Propagating the idea that the Umayyad Caliphate was the only guarantor of the unity of the Ummah and the prevention of Islamic disintegration after the devilry. This symbolic argument emphasized the concept of “practical politics” as opposed to “ideal faith.”
Sanctification of place: One of Muawiyah’s most effective symbolic actions was the spatial sanctification of Damascus. Damascus, the birthplace of the Umayyads and a political center during the caliphate, gradually evolved from a mere military base to a symbol of the “city of faith.” This was a direct response to the spatial legitimacy of Mecca and Medina. The Umayyads sought to establish Damascus not only as the political capital but also as the new center of gravity of the Islamic world. The construction of magnificent buildings and the creation of institutions that reinforced the centrality of Damascus were a form of spatial symbolism to consolidate the monarchy.
Overall, the results of the study clarified that the function of symbols in gaining political legitimacy for the Umayyads was a grand strategy to fill the legitimacy gap caused by the historical precedents and the hereditary transfer of power. This coherent set of symbols was able to direct people's emotions towards the Umayyad political goals and played a decisive role in normalizing the power of the Umayyad family, legitimizing the transition of the caliphate from a consultative path to a hereditary path, and establishing it as a stable political system for decades.