نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی
نویسندگان
1 دانش پژوه سطح چهار تاریخ و سیره پیامبر اعظم(ص)، پژوهشگر پژوهشگاه جامعه الزهرا سلام الله علیها،قم، ایران
2 دانش پژوه سطح چهار فقه و اصول،حوزه علمیه،قم،ایران
3 سطح چهار سیره اهل بیت علیهم السلام،مدیر گروه تاریخ جامعه الزهراسلام الله علیها،قم ایران
چکیده
کلیدواژهها
موضوعات
عنوان مقاله [English]
نویسندگان [English]
Studying the administrative and managerial structures of early Islamic history is impossible without a precise understanding of the offices and officials who served as intermediaries between the government and society. One of the most significant of these offices is ʿIrāfah (chieftainship or headmanship), a position rooted in the tribal system of pre-Islamic Arabia. With the advent of Islam, this office was not abolished but rather redefined in a new form and transformed into one of the pillars of the administrative, social, and military system of Islamic society. During the first sixty years of the Hijra (722-782 CE), concurrent with political transformations, the expansion of Islamic territories, and the changing nature of governance, the office of ʿIrāfah underwent profound conceptual, functional, and structural changes—changes that reflect the overall trajectory of the Islamic state's evolution from a religio-social polity into a centralized, security-oriented structure. The central problem addressed by this research is: what position did the office of ʿIrāfah hold within the Islamic administrative system from the Jāhiliyyah period until 61 AH, and how did it transform from a tribal position with limited functions into an effective institution in social, military, and security management? The core question is: under the influence of what factors did this evolution occur, and what were its consequences for the political and social developments of early Islam, particularly in the events leading up to ʿĀshūrāʾ? Despite the role of ʿurafāʾ (sing. ʿarīf) in organizing tribes, managing military forces, distributing financial resources, and exercising social control, no comprehensive and independent study has yet focused specifically on the historical development of this office. Existing sources have mostly referred to it sporadically within the context of jurisprudential, ḥadīth, or historical discussions. This research gap underscores the necessity for a systematic and analytical study of the evolution of the ʿIrāfah office. The main objective of this article is to elucidate the historical trajectory of the ʿIrāfah office from the Jāhiliyyah period to 61 AH and to analyze its position within the administrative and military system of Islam. The secondary objectives are: a precise conceptualization of the terms ʿarīf and naqīb; examining the place of ʿIrāfah in the tribal structure of the Jāhiliyyah; analyzing the functions of this office during the Prophetic era; explaining its expansion and institutionalization during the period of the early Caliphs; and finally, investigating the security and political role of the ʿurafāʾ during the Umayyad period, especially in Kufa and Basra.This research employs a descriptive-analytical method. Data were collected by gathering and analyzing early and later historical, lexical, ḥadīth, and jurisprudential sources. First, the concepts of ʿarīf and naqīb were examined lexically and terminologically, and the distinction and relationship between these two offices were clarified. Subsequently, the evolution of ʿIrāfah was analyzed comparatively across four historical periods: Jāhiliyyah, the Prophetic era, the period of the early Caliphs, and the Umayyad period up to 61 AH.
The research findings indicate that ʿIrāfah held an established position in the Jāhiliyyah, where ʿurafāʾ served as middle-level functionaries responsible for social management, overseeing tribe members, and playing a role in the military organization. With the advent of Islam, the Prophet (SAWA) redefined this office based on religious, ethical, and individual merit criteria while preserving its overall structure. In the Prophetic era, ʿIrāfah acquired a multidimensional role and was organized across social, financial, and military domains. The appointment of an ʿarīf for each group of ten men during the Battle of Khaybar is a clear example of the systematic function of this office. During this period, the ʿarīf served as a trustworthy intermediary between the people and the government, with faith, justice, and trustworthiness as the primary criteria for selection. After the Prophet's death and with the expansion of conquests, the office of ʿIrāfah experienced quantitative and qualitative development. In new administrative systems such as the Aʿshār and Asbāʿ, the ʿurafāʾ were responsible for organizing military forces, registering the names of fighters, distributing stipends (ʿaṭāʾ), and managing the financial affairs of tribes. These developments indicate the elevation of the ʿarīf's administrative status and his transformation into a cornerstone of the Islamic state's military and financial management. During the caliphate of Imam ʿAlī (AS) (36-40 AH), this office was retained, with particular emphasis on moral integrity and social justice. The ʿurafāʾ played an active role in distributing public treasury funds (bayt al-māl) and social supervision, although warnings were issued regarding the ethical dangers inherent in this office.
During the Umayyad period, especially following the administrative reforms of Ziyād ibn Abīhi and ʿUbayd Allāh ibn Ziyād, the nature of the ʿIrāfah office was transformed, with its security and political functions overshadowing all others. In this period, ʿurafāʾ were appointed directly by the governors and, rather than serving as representatives of their tribes, became instruments of state control over society. The role of the ʿurafāʾ in identifying opponents, suppressing the movement of Muslim ibn ʿAqīl, and the consequent inability of Kufan society to support the uprising of Imam Ḥusayn (AS) demonstrates the profound impact of this office on the political developments leading to the event of ʿĀshūrāʾ. In sum, the office of ʿIrāfah underwent a fundamental transformation across three dimensions: conceptual, functional, and structural. It evolved from an informal, tribal position with limited social and military duties into a formal, multifaceted office dependent on the central government. In this process, the ʿarīf, who in the Jāhiliyyah was an overseer of internal tribal affairs, was redefined in the Prophetic era based on religious and ethical criteria, assuming the role of a just intermediary between people and government. However, in the Umayyad period, it acquired a politico-security character. Concurrently, the gradual expansion of responsibilities and the elevation of the ʿarīf's administrative status provide a clear reflection of the broader transformations in the structure of power and the administrative system in early Islam.
کلیدواژهها [English]
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