https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/ History of Islam en daily 1 Sat, 20 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Sat, 20 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_80097.html The meanings of the words of the Qur’an and their linguistic features serve as guides for understanding the intent of the Holy Qur’an. An eloquent speaker utilizes features of speech—such as definiteness or indefiniteness (maʿrifah/nakirah), omission or mention (ḥadhf/dhikr), precedence or postponement (taqdīm/taʾkhīr), amplification or conciseness (iṭnāb/ījāz), use of an apparent noun instead of a pronoun, grammatical shift (iltifāt), the wise style (uslūb ḥakīm), among others—to render speech appropriate to the listener's needs. By attending to these features, the speaker's intended meaning can be discerned. Conveying meaning through such linguistic features constitutes a beauty of discourse, rendering it concise yet rich and substantive. Ibn ʿĀshūr, author of Al-Taḥrīr wa al-Tanwīr, considers inimitability (iʿjāz) to be the harmony of speech with all contextual requirements (muqtada al-ḥāl), asserting that the Qur’an is a miracle in eloquence, rhetoric, and its utilization of muqtada al-ḥāl. Exegetes, in elucidating the meaning and intent of the Qur’an, have paid close attention to the linguistic features of tis text. Accordingly, they have meticulously articulated monotheistic teachings, historical knowledge, legal rulings, empirical sciences, and other domains of knowledge by carefully considering these distinctive linguistic features. The linguistic features of the Holy Qur’an constitute muqtada al-ḥāl. This concept is discussed in rhetorical sciences (balāghah) and some Qur’anic sciences works to serve the understanding of the Qur’an. Muqtada al-ḥāl is of two types: conformity with contextual requirements (muwāfiq muqtada al-ḥāl) and departure from contextual requirements (mukhālif muqtaḍā al-ḥāl).Regarding the significance of this topic—the role of muqtada al-ḥāl in elucidating historical points of the Qur’an—it may be stated as follows: Historical narratives constitute one of the key domains of knowledge presented in the Qur’an. Given that the Qur’an is free from falsehood (as affirmed in Q. 41:42), and that God has guaranteed its preservation from distortion (15:9), and further considering that the Qur’an articulates every matter with the ultimate objective of guiding humanity—explicitly commanding reflection upon history, the biographies of past nations, and their ultimate fates—it follows that the Qur’an serves as a reliable and beneficial source for comprehending historical truths.What has been discussed in rhetorical works regarding muqtada al-ḥāl primarily introduces the concept and explains secondary intentions (gharaḍ thanawī); other applications of muqtada al-ḥāl in comprehending the intent of an eloquent speaker, such as the Qur’an or Nahj al-Balāghah, have not been elaborated. Furthermore, the specific ways in which exegetes have employed muqtada al-ḥāl—i.e., features of words and speech—to derive teachings from the Qur’an have not been systematically identified, preventing others from modeling their approach. This article explicates the method of exegetes in using muqtada al-ḥāl to understand the historical points of the Qur’an. Particularly, the case of departure from contextual requirements (mukhālif muqtada al-ḥāl) is subtle and requires greater attention for identification. Although exegetes utilize this category in interpreting the Qur’an, for those seeking to learn their methods, a need exists to clarify and highlight this usage. The research question is: What is the role of muqtada al-ḥāl in the discourse of the Holy Qur’an? By presenting examples of exegetes’ use of muqtada al-ḥāl in understanding historical points from the Qur’an, it becomes evident that exegetes have employed muqtada al-ḥāl for this purpose, deriving precise historical insights from the contextual requirements present in verses or using it to confirm the narrated occasion of revelation (sabab al-nuzūl), as illustrated concerning Q. 17:85 and Q. 9:19. Neglecting muqtada al-ḥāl may deprive an exegete, translator, or careful student of the Qur’an from grasping the actuality of a historical narrative or the subtleties embedded in its telling within verses related to history. No prior research was found on the role of muqtada al-ḥāl in extracting historical material from the Holy Qur’an. Instances of conformity with contextual requirements (muwāfiq muqtaḍā al-ḥāl) identified in this research as evidence for understanding historical points include: mention/deliberate omission (dhikr/ḥadhf), definiteness (maʿrifah), adjective (ṣifah), prepositional phrase (jār wa majrūr), conditional statement (sharṭ), imperative verb (fiʿl amr), and interrogative (istifhām). Instances of departure from contextual requirements (mukhālif muqtaḍā al-ḥāl) addressed in this research include: grammatical shift (iltifāt), change of pronoun form, wise style (uslūb ḥakīm), use of an apparent noun instead of a pronoun, and using a verbal noun (maṣdar) in place of a non-maṣdar form. In this research, Tafsīr al-Mīzān was utilized more than other commentaries, as ʿAllāmah Ṭabāṭabāʾī extensively employed muqtada al-ḥāl in interpreting the Holy Qur’an. Muqtada al-ḥāl serves as a guide for understanding the following historical matters from the Holy Qur’an: 1. Characteristics of certain prophets, kings, individuals, and nations; 2. Information concerning certain places; 3. Information concerning certain times or eras; 4. Religious ordinances pertaining to certain past nations; 5. Customs and practices of people (e.g., dowry). Authors’ Contribution:Marzieh Mansourian, a Level Four (Higher Seminary Education) student of Comparative Exegesis, was responsible for authoring this article. Mr. Mohammad Fallahi Qomi, as the corresponding author, supervised the writing process and provided necessary guidance for its composition, completion, and revision. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_80098.html The Kaaba, recognized as the qibla (direction of prayer) and the most sacred site for Muslims worldwide, extends beyond the boundaries of Islam, being deeply rooted in the history of the Abrahamic faiths. According to Islamic beliefs, this sacred house was first built by Prophet Abraham (AS) and his son, Prophet Ishmael (AS), upon foundations originally laid by Prophet Adam (AS). Throughout history, this structure has been damaged, repaired, and reconstructed due to various factors. One of the most significant events related to the reconstruction of the Kaaba occurred in the pre-Islamic period, during the lifetime of the Messenger of God (SAWA), and was undertaken by the Quraysh tribe. This event has consistently attracted the attention of Islamic scholars and historians due to the pivotal role played by Prophet Muhammad (SAWA) in it. In most historical and narrative sources, the Prophet's age at the time of this reconstruction is reported to be approximately thirty-five years. However, this claim is open to doubt based on various details and evidence found across different sources. The primary objective of this research is to examine the validity of this claim and to conduct a more precise revision of the age of Prophet Muhammad (SAWA) during the reconstruction of the Kaaba. The main problem addressed by this research is to clarify the exact date of this event and compare it with the widely accepted and well-known age of the Messenger of God (SAWA) at that time. Given the importance of this issue in Islamic history and its impact on understanding other historical events concerning the life of the Holy Prophet (SAWA), a thorough and documented analysis of the narratives and historical texts is essential. To achieve the main objective of the research—namely, determining the precise time of the Kaaba's reconstruction and the Prophet's age at that significant historical event—a descriptive-analytical methodology has been employed. This method includes a phase of collecting authentic historical and narrative data and reports, followed by a meticulous analysis of these reports to extract reliable conclusions. In the data collection phase, a variety of sources have been utilized, including authoritative works on Islamic history, Sīrah literature of the Messenger of God (SAWA), and collections of traditions (ḥadīth). These sources were primarily selected from early works of Muslim historians, such as Ibn Isḥāq, Ṭabarī, and other prominent historians, along with ḥadīth collections and Sīrah reports. The selection of these sources was carried out carefully to ensure their chain of transmission (isnad) and content reliability. After gathering the sources, the credibility of the chains of transmission for the narratives is assessed to minimize the possibility of distortion, error, or exaggeration. Subsequently, various reports are compared and cross-referenced to reveal inconsistencies and differences present in the narratives. For instance, while some sources may mention the Prophet's age at the Kaaba's reconstruction as thirty-five, other sources might record a different age or place the event in a different, less famous year. Such discrepancies are carefully examined and explained through logical and historical analysis. The comparative method allows this research to achieve a coherent and comprehensive picture rather than simply accepting individual narratives in isolation, thereby avoiding superficial interpretations and ensuring that the final inference is based on reliable data and scientific reasoning. The results of this investigation indicate that the well-known and widely accepted belief that the Messenger of God (SAWA) was thirty-five years old during the Kaaba's reconstruction is most likely based on inaccurate interpretations or undocumented readings of historical texts. The findings suggest that this event occurred at a younger age, specifically during the Prophet Muhammad’s  adolescence or early youth. This discovery, in addition to correcting the historiography concerning the Prophet’s life, may contribute to a better understanding of the Prophet’s  position and the social and political conditions of Mecca prior to his Prophetic mission (biʿtha). In conclusion, this research emphasizes that a precise and documented re-examination of historical narratives to determine the exact dating of events can be key to resolving some ambiguities in the lives of major historical figures, particularly the Prophet (SAWA). It can offer new perspectives for understanding the life, history, and Sīrah of the Prophet (SAWA) as well as the historical circumstances of that period.Authors’ Contribution: The first author was responsible for data collection, document analysis, and writing the substantive sections of the article. The second author actively participated in the process of source review, critical textual analysis, and final revisions. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77567.html Culture is regarded as the most crucial and fundamental foundation for any societal change. Transforming any society necessitates changes within its cultural layers. Conversely, an examination of the history of the Prophetic era reveals a profound social transformation during the time of the Messenger of God (SAWA). Through his mission, the Prophet (SAWA) initiated significant cultural and social changes within the societies of his time, leading to the replacement of pre-Islamic (Jāhili) values with Islamic values. Analyzing the process of social change during the era of the prophetic mission indicates that the Prophet's macro-level strategies and policies were implemented through various methods. Each strategy was based on a specific plan, and each plan possessed its own executive procedures. Culture served as the most pivotal strategy and the most significant framework for change in Prophetic society. Although numerous definitions of culture have been proposed by various scholars, the intended meaning of culture in this paper is: "an interconnected set of modes of thinking, feeling, and acting that are relatively distinct, learned and shared by a significant number of individuals". Culture operates through both objective and symbolic means to transform individuals into a distinct and specific collective. Therefore, by altering the underlying layers constituting culture, the process of social change can be initiated. Our conception of social change here refers to observable and investigable phenomena occurring within a short timeframe, such that any ordinary person can personally track a change during their lifetime or a brief period, witness its definitive outcome, or perceive its temporary result. Based on the hypothesis that social change was effected by the Messenger of God (SAWA) through transforming cultural layers, this research examines, categorizes, and analyzes how society transitioned from a Jāhili society to an Islamic society during the Prophetic era. The most important and effective instrument employed by the Prophet (SAWA) in changing the cultural layers of Jāhili society was the Holy Qur’an. Through continuous effort, reliance on the Holy Qur’an, and his exalted moral conduct in engaging with the ideas of the people of his time, he prioritized the most fundamental cultural layer and system—namely human "beliefs" and "cognitions"—for transformation. Subsequently, he addressed the subsequent layers, ultimately leading to social change in his society. Understanding these components of social change can provide guidance for establishing an exemplary model within contemporary Islamic society aimed at cultural reform. Culture comprises three interdependent systems, referred to as its constituent components: the system of cognitions and beliefs (the system of worldviews); the system of values and inclinations (the system of values); and the system of behaviors and actions (the system of conduct). Each component of culture can be considered a layer of the cultural system. The most fundamental cultural layer is the "system of beliefs and cognitions", while the most external cultural layer is the "system of behaviors and actions". Accordingly, to change any culture, these layers and components must be transformed to alter the culture and, consequently, the orientation of a society. This research specifically examines the two more significant layers: the "system of beliefs and cognitions" (referred to as the "system of worldviews") and the "system of values and inclinations" (briefly termed the "system of values").Given the differences between Meccan and Medinan sūrahs, it can be asserted that the Prophet's cultural strategies in Mecca were primarily foundational and doctrinal. However, in Medina, due to the formation of an Islamic state and the requirements of managing an Islamic society, the cultural policy of Prophetic society shifted its focus to the middle and outer layers of culture. Hence, the Prophet's cultural strategy in Medina can be characterized as value-normative and legislative-juridical. Among the most significant practical components in the Prophet's cultural institution-building were the establishment of religious rites and the innovation of institutions and symbols that had not been prevalent until the commencement of his prophetic call. This media creation played an effective and important role in reminding believers of religious teachings, propagating the faith, or summoning to the performance of religious rituals. Examples include: the mosque, prayer (ṣalāt), Friday Prayer (ṣalāt al-jumuʿah), the call to prayer (adhān), the iqāmah, the pulpit (minbar), and the practice of writing and authorship.Employing documentary and analytical methods, this study investigates the changes in two significant cultural layers during the era of the Messenger of God (SAWA)—namely, the system of values and the system of worldviews. The findings indicate that the Prophet (SAWA), by establishing theoretical components such as belief in monotheism (tawḥīd) and the hereafter (maʿād) and utilizing Qur’anic teachings, alongside practical components such as calling for unity, tolerance, equality, and pragmatism within society, was able to effect a tremendous cultural transformation in pre-Islamic Arab society. Effecting change in the value system of human society by the Prophet (SAWA) was one of the most critical components of cultural changes within the state established by the Messenger of God (SAWA). These changes brought about a monumental revolution in the value system of human society during the duration of his prophetic mission. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_80099.html This article aims to conduct a critical, interdisciplinary (historical-jurisprudential) study of one of the prominent cases where the Prophetic Sīrah (life and conduct) is cited for the inference (istinbāṭ) of legal rulings (aḥkām). As a case study, this research examines the "Campaign (Ghazwa) of Banu al-Muṣṭaliq" and how Imāmī (Shi’a) and Sunnī jurists have cited this event to prove the "permissibility of launching a surprise attack against the enemy". The ultimate objective is to demonstrate the crucial point that an uncritical and selective reliance on a single historical report, without considering competing reports, evaluating their chain of transmission (isnad) and content (matn), and assessing it against the entirety of the Prophetic Sīrah, can lead to the inference of rulings that not only lack a solid historical foundation but may also conflict with the ethical and legal principles governing warfare in Islam. This research seeks to clarify a correct methodology for utilizing history in jurisprudential inference and derivation. The central question of this research has two levels: At the historical level: between the two conflicting reports concerning how the battle of Banu al-Muṣṭaliq began (the report of calling to Islam before battle and the report of a surprise attack), which is more credible and why? At the jurisprudential level: Assuming this conflict exists, on what methodological basis have a number of earlier and later Shīʿa and Sunnī jurists chosen only the report of the surprise attack and, based on it, derived the ruling of the permissibility (ibāḥa) (and in some cases, recommendation (istiḥbāb)) of a surprise attack – even without the need to re-issue a call to an enemy who had previously received the call to Islam? Is this derivation compatible with the principle of "prioritizing the call over fighting" (taqdīm al-daʿwah ʿalā al-qitāl), which is emphasized in other texts and the continuous (mustamirr) Prophetic Sīrah?This research employs a descriptive-analytical method, with data collected through library research. The methodological framework of the article combines analytical historiography and comparative jurisprudence (fiqh muqāran). The process was as follows: First, all reports concerning the nature of the commencement of the Banu al-Muṣṭaliq campaign were extracted from the most important historical, ḥadīth, and Sīrah sources of both schools, prioritizing early and primary sources. These were then organized into two completely distinct and contradictory categories. Second, through direct reference to jurisprudential and argumentative (istidlālī) works of both schools (from early to later jurisprudence), all instances of citing this campaign as proof for the permissibility of surprise attacks, along with the exact wording of the jurists' arguments, were collected and categorized.In the analysis phase, the article critically evaluates the historical reports internally, considering the preferences of specialized historians (such as al-Wāqidī and Ibn Saʿd).  Subsequently, it conducts an external analysis, assessing each report against the definitive (qaṭʿī) Prophetic Sīrah in other events and general directives related to jihād (e.g., the command to Imam ʿAlī (AS) in Yemen and Khaybar, the prohibition of night raids (tabyīt), and the emphasis on an initial call). Finally, the jurists’ methods of argumentation are critiqued from the perspective of the principles of citing history in jurisprudence (e.g., addressing conflicting reports, rational reconciliation (jamʿ ʿaqlī), and recourse to external indications (qarāʾin khārijīyyah)).The significant findings of this research are:The existence of an evident and unresolved conflict at the historical core of the issue: Sources present two completely different "narrations" (riwāyāt) of how this campaign began; accepting one leads to opposing jurisprudential conclusions.The predominance of a selective and uncritical approach in jurisprudential citation: The results indicate that many of the jurists examined (from al-Shāfiʿī and al-Sarakhsī to Shaykh al-Ṭūsī, ʿAllāmah al-Ḥillī, and Ṣāḥib al-Jawāhir) merely relied on citing a specific historical statement ("that the Prophet (SAWA) raided Banu al-Muṣṭaliq..."), without:    - Acknowledging the existence of a conflicting and stronger report (the report of the call).    - Providing a clear reason for preferring their chosen report.    - Critically examining the chain of transmission of the surprise attack report (which typically traces back to ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿUmar).    - Synthesizing this action with the Prophet's other actions in different campaigns.The preference for the "call" report from the perspective of specialized historiography: The investigation revealed that early, authoritative historians of the Sīrah, such as al-Wāqidī in al-Maghāzī and Ibn Saʿd in al-Ṭabaqāt, explicitly state that the report containing the call is more firmly established and credible. This preference historically weakens the foundation of the jurists’ argument.The conflict between the surprise attack report and the totality of Prophetic Sīrah: By presenting multiple pieces of evidence from the sources of both schools (the ḥadīth of Yemen, the prohibition of night raids, the statement of Ibn ʿAbbās, etc.), this research clearly demonstrates that a general and emphasized principle in the Prophetic jihādī Sīrah is the "call to Islam before the commencement of armed conflict". The action attributed in the second report, if accepted, appears to be a singular exception requiring special justification, not a rule-establishing (qāʿidah-sāz) proposition.Jurisprudential-ethical implications: The implication of this jurisprudential derivation could potentially justify indiscriminate attacks and disregard for the opportunity to issue the call and complete the proof (ithmām al-ḥujjah), which conflicts with the spirit of Islamic teachings regarding the protection of non-combatants and the ethics of war.This research concludes that the derivation of the "permissibility of surprise attack" based on the Prophet's conduct in the Banu al-Muṣṭaliq campaign rests on a weak foundation. This weakness stems not from the absolute invalidity of the Sīrah as a source of jurisprudence, but rather from deficiencies in the methodology employed to utilize it. The article demonstrates that the jurists in question fell into the trap of viewing history through a single narrative and neglected comparative and comprehensive analysis. Correct jurisprudential derivation in such cases requires following logical steps: first, compiling all relevant historical reports and evaluating the credibility of each according to historical and ḥadīth criteria. Second, synthesizing these reports with other Sīrah evidence on the subject to discover the general rule (qāʿidah kulliyyah). Third, in cases of conflict, providing a reasonable justification for preferring one report or specifying (takhṣīṣ) the general rule. In the issue of surprise attacks, this process appears not to have been properly followed, resulting in a fatwā issued on the basis of the weaker report. This research emphasizes the necessity of a critical re-reading of such historical citations in jurisprudence and paying greater attention to the principles of historical criticism and Sīrah studies within the process of deriving legal rulings. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77892.html Poetry, as one of the most prominent and effective socio-cultural elements, held a distinguished and central position in the pre-Islamic era (Jāhiliyyah) and played a decisive role in the dynamism, reflection of values, and shaping of public opinion. This artistic phenomenon and powerful medium, which before [the commencement of] the Prophet Muhammad’s Prophetic mission was largely monopolized by the elite and tribes and reflected the specific values of the Jāhili period—including tribal prejudices, material boasts, purely lyrical descriptions, and, in some cases, satirical (hijāʾ) themes contrary to human dignity—was reconsidered and redefined with the emergence of Islam and the beginning of the Prophetic mission as a potent and influential tool for advancing humanity's sublime and spiritual goals. Hence, the Messenger of God (SAWA), throughout his prophetic mission, possessing a deep and strategic understanding of poetry's extensive influence and impact in Muslim society, consistently endeavored to employ this cultural instrument and the resulting social atmosphere most effectively and intelligently to institutionalize the nascent Islamic culture, disseminate spirituality, ethically cultivate society, and, in sum, to advance the lofty religious objectives.  From this perspective, a comprehensive, precise, and profound investigation into the place of poetry in the Prophetic era, and particularly an analysis of the measured and wise manner in which the Holy Prophet (SAWA) encountered the long-standing tradition of Jāhili poetry and its complex associated culture, is a subject that, due to its historical richness and profound socio-cultural implications, merits independent and in-depth research.Adopting a descriptive-analytical approach and relying on authentic historical and narrative sources, the present research elucidates two main axes: first, an analysis of the characteristics, functions, and elevated status of poetry in the Jāhiliyyah; and second, an analysis of the strategies and methods employed by the Messenger of God (SAWA) for the purposeful utilization of this important and institutionalized cultural component to advance the fundamental principles of Islamic culture, which paved the way for guiding Muslims toward sublime divine values. In this regard, the research examines primary historical, narrative, and literary sources related to the poetry of the Prophetic era and analyzes the Prophet's direct and indirect encounters with various poets and poems. The fundamental and key findings of this research confirm and indicate that the reformist, guiding, and entirely purposeful approach of the Messenger of God (SAWA) towards the phenomenon of poetry and poets facilitated and brought about fundamental and lasting transformations in the components, content, and orientations of Jāhili poetry. Consequently, this powerful artistic form, despite retaining some of its formal and literary features from the past, as well as the legacy of some reprehensible themes within it, gradually, under the influence of the Prophet's directives, evolved into an acceptable, constructive poetry that served to promote, elucidate, and establish authentic Islamic values during the era of the Messenger of God's mission.This profound and historical transformation resulted from a series of wise measures and directions by the Prophet (SAWA), the most significant of which can be summarized in the following axes: positively orienting and encouraging poets to create artistic works aligned with Islamic norms and values; precisely elucidating the status of sublime, valuable, and committed poetry from an Islamic perspective and distinguishing between beneficial and harmful poetry; practically utilizing elevated and meaningful poetry to disseminate Islamic teachings, address doubts, and defend the Muslim community; and also confirming, strengthening, and elevating the social standing of poets committed to Islam, which itself served as a factor attracting other poetic talents toward Islam. However, in specific and limited cases, reports found in authentic historical and Sīrah sources indicate critical or negative stances adopted by the Prophet (SAWA) against certain poems or particular poets. The causes and roots of these critical stances are to be found primarily in factors such as: the extremist, exaggerated, and harmful tendencies of some poets in their composition; the conscious efforts of certain poets to weaken the nascent Islamic society and its fundamental values through satire and defamation; and also the undesirable, immoral, and harmful content of some verses, which stood in clear contradiction to Islamic teachings. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_80100.html The Prophet Muhammad (SAWA) was sent as a prophet to a society characterized by a rigid class system—a society that divided people into different strata based on material and pre-Islamic (Jāhili) values such as lineage, wealth, status, gender, and military power. Consequently, one of the principal objectives of the Prophet's mission was to combat this erroneous belief and replace it with the concept and principle: "Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous among you" (Q. 49:13). Clearly, such a reform necessitated a redefinition of the status and role of human beings and the articulation of new criteria, such as piety (taqwā) and universal human principles. To achieve this goal and to spread Islam throughout the Arabian Peninsula, alongside engaging with tribal chieftains and even rulers of neighboring states, the Prophet (SAWA) paid particular attention to the common people and the various societies of his time. Sending letters was one of the methods adopted by the Prophet (SAWA) in his interactions with tribal leaders, foreign rulers, and ordinary people. Through these letters, he sought to win hearts and minds (ta'līf al-qulūb), articulate a new definition of the criteria for excellence, and redefine social structures from an Islamic perspective. In his spiritual and Islamic invitation, the Messenger of God (SAWA) addressed both the leaders and the common people of tribes and nations, and in some cases, directly addressed individual members of a tribe or community without any intermediary. This approach is also observable and analyzable in the treaties (covenants) of the Messenger of God (SAWA), as all of the Prophet's writings carry a propagational and communicative burden. In public treaties, the objective was not merely to produce a written text but to convey a message through the text, thereby demonstrating through this medium that every human being is personally addressed by God and the call of Islam. This method and style of communication and interaction represent a specific form of diplomacy, known today as public diplomacy. Despite numerous and valuable studies on the Prophet's biography and conduct (sīrah), treaties, correspondences, and international relations, this particular perspective on his correspondence has received less attention. Few studies have focused specifically on examining the distinct components of public diplomacy within these letters. Existing research has either analyzed the Prophet's epistolary style or, from a general perspective, examined the broad characteristics of these letters without selecting criteria specific to public diplomacy.This article seeks to investigate, using an explanatory method and library-based sources, the hypothesis that the Prophet Muhammad (SAWA), while establishing direct communication with foreign rulers and tribal leaders, placed particular emphasis on engaging with ordinary people and individual members of various tribes and communities. Furthermore, this model of communication can offer an appropriate framework for designing and implementing public diplomacy in contemporary Islamic states. This article will first discuss the theoretical underpinnings of public diplomacy and its place within Islam. Second, it will extract and delineate certain elements and pillars of the Prophet's public diplomacy based on his letters. Consequently, by presenting a systematic framework, it will not only substantiate its hypothesis but also take a significant step toward formulating an Islamic paradigm for public diplomacy. Based on the findings of this research, Islamic states can utilize principles derived from the Prophet's sīrah—including peace-seeking, goodwill, respect for the rights of others, emphasis on commonalities, rejection of inequality, and other such principles—to establish a highly effective and dynamic public diplomacy system consistent with Islamic principles. This would enable them to realize the objectives and purposes of Islamic law (maqāṣid al-sharīʿah) while securing and safeguarding their national interests. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_80101.html The issue of the execution of individuals identified in Islamic history as those who challenged (or attempted to rival) the Qur’an represents a significant and highly contentious point of doubt in historical and religious studies. The claim that the Holy Prophet (SAWA) ordered the execution of figures such as al-Naḍr ibn al-Ḥārith and al-Aswad al-ʿAnsī for producing texts purportedly similar to or in defiance (taḥaddī) of the Qur’an has been a persistent subject of debate and considerable skepticism. A profound and well-substantiated analysis of this matter necessitates meticulous historical, isnad-oriented, and contextual (dalālah) research. The importance of this investigation lies in the fact that doubts and allegations concerning this issue have been raised in the works of Orientalists and in virtual spaces (social media), making it essential to respond to these doubts and critique these claims. In addition to critiquing these allegations, this research elucidates the methods of the Holy Prophet (SAWA) in dealing with dissidents and ideological opponents of the Islamic system, emphasizes the inimitability (iʿjāz) and unsurpassable nature of the Holy Qur’an due to its miraculous aspects, and contributes to a more precise understanding of the enemies of the Holy Prophet (SAWA). The primary objective of this article is to examine and analyze the historical reports concerning the execution of al-Naḍr ibn al-Ḥārith and al-Aswad al-ʿAnsī, and to answer the question of whether their execution occurred due to challenging the Qur’an. The research hypothesis is based on the premise that the notion of executing Qur’an-challengers lacks a documented and sound foundation, and the occurrence of such an execution by the Prophet's order is unacceptable. The research method employed in this study is descriptive-analytical, carried out through meticulous reference to ancient historical, exegetical (tafsīr), and jurisprudential (fiqh) texts. The reports have been critically evaluated in terms of their chains of transmission (isnad), textual content (dalālah), and historical context to identify and diagnose existing contradictions and inconsistencies. Criteria for the authenticity or spuriousness of narratives have been given particular attention, striving through citation analysis to carefully examine the credibility of transmitters (ruwāt) and the relevant transmissions (nuqūl). Research data were primarily extracted from historical works such as the Sīrah of Ibn Isḥāq, the Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī (the book al-Tārīkh by al-Ṭabarī), Qur’anic exegeses, and other reliable sources. In this article, first, the biography and actions of al-Naḍr ibn al-Ḥārith are examined to clarify the motivations behind his provocation and conflicts with the Prophet (SAWA). Subsequently, the reasons and claims regarding his alleged challenging of the Qur’an are analyzed from the perspectives of chain of transmission (isnad) and textual content (dalālah), and the value and credibility of the reports are critiqued. Following this, the story of al-Aswad al-ʿAnsī, including his claim to prophethood and rebellion, is detailed, and his claims against the Qur’an are scrutinized through an examination of the documents and narratives. The final section of the article is devoted to a general analysis of the results, explaining the rationale behind differing viewpoints and their cultural and historical effects. The research results indicate that most of the existing narrations concerning the execution of al-Naḍr ibn al-Ḥārith and al-Aswad al-ʿAnsī for challenging the Qur’an suffer from inconsistencies in their chains of transmission (isnad) and content, and are therefore unreliable. Based on historical evidence, al-Naḍr ibn al-Ḥārith was not executed after being taken captive at the Battle of Badr; rather, he died due to a hunger strike. The claim of his execution by the Prophet's order lacks a credible historical basis. Furthermore, the statements attributed to him in the context of challenging the Qur’an are highly dubious and unsubstantiated. Although Naḍr claimed the possibility of rivaling the Qur’an, stating that he could produce something like it if he so willed, he never actually engaged in a practical challenge. Instead, to divert people from the Prophet (SAWA), he would recount ancient Persian tales to the Quraysh, saying: if Muhammad narrates to you the stories of ʿĀd and Thamūd, I will recount the stories of Rustam and Isfandiyār and the accounts of the Kisrās and the Persian kings. The attribution of the phrase "wa al-ṭāḥināti ṭaḥnā..." to him is incorrect and baseless, suffers from numerous isnad problems, and does not indicate an actual confrontation with the Qur’an. Regarding al-Aswad al-ʿAnsī, the attribution of the phrase "Sabbiḥ isma rabbika al-aʿlā, alladhī yassara ʿalā al-ḥublā..." to him was without evidence or notable substantiation; this text bore no relation to challenging Sūrat al-Aʿlā (Q. 87). Concerning his death, evidence suggests he was known as a rebel against the Islamic state, and his killing was rooted in political and social issues, unrelated to the matter of challenging the Qur’an. One of the significant achievements of this article is that it substantially limits the scope of this doubt through documented evidence, demonstrating that there exists no notable or definitive proof indicating the execution of these individuals solely for challenging the Qur’an. These findings represent an important clarification in confronting certain historical misconceptions and public culture (narratives) that emphasize the falsity of this idea. The article also shows that the Prophet's dealings with ideological opponents were not merely due to differences of opinion; rather, in specific cases, they resulted from military actions or armed rebellions against the Islamic state. Consequently, the Holy Prophet (SAWA) never executed anyone for challenging the Qur’an, and there is no documented evidence or reliable report proving that the Holy Prophet (SAWA) executed his ideological opponents (solely for ideological opposition) or for challenging the Qur’an. By emphasizing documented jurisprudential and historical analyses, this research suggests that to rectify historical misunderstandings and increase public awareness, further research should be conducted on the application of the social and military policies of the Holy Prophet (SAWA) using precise source criticism and narrative critique, in order to present a just and well-documented picture of early Islamic history. It is also recommended that greater attention and care be given to the isnad and content criticism of historical reports to determine the authenticity and validity of narrations and the alignment of their content with facts, thereby refuting and resolving many doubts. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_80102.html Studying the administrative and managerial structures of early Islamic history is impossible without a precise understanding of the offices and officials who served as intermediaries between the government and society. One of the most significant of these offices is ʿIrāfah (chieftainship or headmanship), a position rooted in the tribal system of pre-Islamic Arabia. With the advent of Islam, this office was not abolished but rather redefined in a new form and transformed into one of the pillars of the administrative, social, and military system of Islamic society. During the first sixty years of the Hijra (722-782 CE), concurrent with political transformations, the expansion of Islamic territories, and the changing nature of governance, the office of ʿIrāfah underwent profound conceptual, functional, and structural changes—changes that reflect the overall trajectory of the Islamic state's evolution from a religio-social polity into a centralized, security-oriented structure. The central problem addressed by this research is: what position did the office of ʿIrāfah hold within the Islamic administrative system from the Jāhiliyyah period until 61 AH, and how did it transform from a tribal position with limited functions into an effective institution in social, military, and security management? The core question is: under the influence of what factors did this evolution occur, and what were its consequences for the political and social developments of early Islam, particularly in the events leading up to ʿĀshūrāʾ? Despite the role of ʿurafāʾ (sing. ʿarīf) in organizing tribes, managing military forces, distributing financial resources, and exercising social control, no comprehensive and independent study has yet focused specifically on the historical development of this office. Existing sources have mostly referred to it sporadically within the context of jurisprudential, ḥadīth, or historical discussions. This research gap underscores the necessity for a systematic and analytical study of the evolution of the ʿIrāfah office. The main objective of this article is to elucidate the historical trajectory of the ʿIrāfah office from the Jāhiliyyah period to 61 AH and to analyze its position within the administrative and military system of Islam. The secondary objectives are: a precise conceptualization of the terms ʿarīf and naqīb; examining the place of ʿIrāfah in the tribal structure of the Jāhiliyyah; analyzing the functions of this office during the Prophetic era; explaining its expansion and institutionalization during the period of the early Caliphs; and finally, investigating the security and political role of the ʿurafāʾ during the Umayyad period, especially in Kufa and Basra.This research employs a descriptive-analytical method. Data were collected by gathering and analyzing early and later historical, lexical, ḥadīth, and jurisprudential sources. First, the concepts of ʿarīf and naqīb were examined lexically and terminologically, and the distinction and relationship between these two offices were clarified. Subsequently, the evolution of ʿIrāfah was analyzed comparatively across four historical periods: Jāhiliyyah, the Prophetic era, the period of the early Caliphs, and the Umayyad period up to 61 AH.The research findings indicate that ʿIrāfah held an established position in the Jāhiliyyah, where ʿurafāʾ served as middle-level functionaries responsible for social management, overseeing tribe members, and playing a role in the military organization. With the advent of Islam, the Prophet (SAWA) redefined this office based on religious, ethical, and individual merit criteria while preserving its overall structure. In the Prophetic era, ʿIrāfah acquired a multidimensional role and was organized across social, financial, and military domains. The appointment of an ʿarīf for each group of ten men during the Battle of Khaybar is a clear example of the systematic function of this office. During this period, the ʿarīf served as a trustworthy intermediary between the people and the government, with faith, justice, and trustworthiness as the primary criteria for selection. After the Prophet's death and with the expansion of conquests, the office of ʿIrāfah experienced quantitative and qualitative development. In new administrative systems such as the Aʿshār and Asbāʿ, the ʿurafāʾ were responsible for organizing military forces, registering the names of fighters, distributing stipends (ʿaṭāʾ), and managing the financial affairs of tribes. These developments indicate the elevation of the ʿarīf's administrative status and his transformation into a cornerstone of the Islamic state's military and financial management. During the caliphate of Imam ʿAlī (AS) (36-40 AH), this office was retained, with particular emphasis on moral integrity and social justice. The ʿurafāʾ played an active role in distributing public treasury funds (bayt al-māl) and social supervision, although warnings were issued regarding the ethical dangers inherent in this office.During the Umayyad period, especially following the administrative reforms of Ziyād ibn Abīhi and ʿUbayd Allāh ibn Ziyād, the nature of the ʿIrāfah office was transformed, with its security and political functions overshadowing all others. In this period, ʿurafāʾ were appointed directly by the governors and, rather than serving as representatives of their tribes, became instruments of state control over society. The role of the ʿurafāʾ in identifying opponents, suppressing the movement of Muslim ibn ʿAqīl, and the consequent inability of Kufan society to support the uprising of Imam Ḥusayn (AS) demonstrates the profound impact of this office on the political developments leading to the event of ʿĀshūrāʾ. In sum, the office of ʿIrāfah underwent a fundamental transformation across three dimensions: conceptual, functional, and structural. It evolved from an informal, tribal position with limited social and military duties into a formal, multifaceted office dependent on the central government. In this process, the ʿarīf, who in the Jāhiliyyah was an overseer of internal tribal affairs, was redefined in the Prophetic era based on religious and ethical criteria, assuming the role of a just intermediary between people and government. However, in the Umayyad period, it acquired a politico-security character. Concurrently, the gradual expansion of responsibilities and the elevation of the ʿarīf's administrative status provide a clear reflection of the broader transformations in the structure of power and the administrative system in early Islam. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_80103.html Historiography, in practice, is the process of reporting historical events in the form of written historical narratives, which takes place within the framework of a specific discourse and is accompanied by various methods, perceptions, and perspectives. Historiography types refer to the central themes and subjects upon which a written historical work is based, aligned with the scope of the historian's vision. From its inception, Islamic historiography introduced and experienced two types of approaches and perspectives: the transmitted-narrative (naqlī-riwāyī) and the rational-critical (ʿaqlī-intiqādī). The narrative approach was heavily influenced by ḥadīth and adhered to the characteristic of the ahl al-ḥadīth, namely the isnād (chain of transmission) method. Gradually, moving beyond mere isnād, historiography entered a new stage of rational-critical historiography, which was accompanied by a spirit of inquiry, observation, and criticism. These two types of historiography have left a profound impact on the writing of Islamic history books up to the present day. Following the Islamic Revolution of [Iran in] 1979 (1357 SH), attention to the writing and translation of early Islamic history increased, and authors addressed the events of Islamic history from various perspectives. The subject of battles, the ghazawāt (i.e. the Prophet's military expeditions against infidels) and wars of the Prophet (SAWA), particularly after the Imposed War (Iran-Iraq War), was revisited and cited by researchers and writers, who explained and analyzed this topic from different viewpoints. It should be noted that in the first decade after the Islamic Revolution, few works appeared, but gradually, after the second decade, the number of books on Islamic history increased. Some of these books were written as novels or stories for the general public, aiming to familiarize ordinary people and raise Muslims' awareness of the historical circumstances of the early Islamic period. Works by authors such as Maḥmūd Ḥakīmī and Zabīḥ Allāh Manṣūrī fall into this category. The second category includes books by researchers and authors such as Mahdī Pīshvāʾī, [Seyed Ja'far] Shahīdī, Muntaẓir al-Qāʾim, Rasūl Jaʿfariyān, and others who, through research in historical texts, produced resources for teaching at universities and Islamic seminaries (ḥawzah ʿilmiyyah). The objective of the present article, which is derived from a doctoral dissertation titled "Explanation and Analysis of the Historiographical Method of Early Islamic History Books in Iran after the Islamic Revolution from 1979 to 2016 (1357–1395 SH)," is to analyze the historiography of the Prophet's battles in research books on Islamic history (from 1979 to 2018 / 1357–1397 SH). Accordingly, by examining the historiographical methods and attitudes of authors of Islamic history books regarding the subject of the Prophet's battles in the aforementioned period, this research attempts to answer two questions: How were the ghazawāt reflected in the works of Islamic history authors in Iran? And what approach did authors who wrote on Islamic history between 1979 and 2018 (1357–1397 SH) adopt toward this subject? The research hypothesis is that, due to the influence of the isnād-ḥadīth method on Islamic historiography, most of the explanations of the ghazawāt and battles of the Prophet (SAWA) found in Islamic history books are of the narrative-transmitted (riwāyī-naqlī) type. The investigations, while confirming the aforementioned hypothesis, show that alongside the narrative method, some ghazawāt and battles are presented using a descriptive-analytical method, explained and analyzed from a religious perspective and sometimes in a comparative manner. Meanwhile, the use of the rational-critical (ʿaqlī-intiqādī) method is rarely observed. In the presentation of battles and ghazawāt, a combination of interpretation, description, and analysis has been employed, and the text has been written using transmitted-narrative (naqlī-riwāyī) and descriptive-analytical methods. The sources used in this research consist of two main categories: works on historiography and Islamic history books (research-oriented and primary sources).These include: Stanford, Michael, An Introduction to Historical Research (2014/1393 SH), who believes that the sequence and repetition of events reveal the nature of history; this book introduces the reader to the basic concepts, theories, and methods of history as well as the problems and issues that arise in its serious study. Rosenthal, Franz, A History of Muslim Historiography (1987/1366 SH), translated by Asadullah Azad, a two-volume work of which the first volume was used in this research.  Rosenthal categorizes the types of Islamic historiography and analyzes religious historiography, believing that this type of historiography was more influenced by theology, with its secular aspect being less prominent. Zarrīnkūb, ʿAbd al-Ḥusayn, History in the Balance (Tārīkh dar Tarāzū) (1983/1362 SH), written concerning the types of historiography in the world; he believes that all the long-standing traditions of the Near East influenced Muslim historiography, but the most significant influence was that of Persian historiography. Sajjādī, Ṣādiq, and ʿĀlamzādeh, Hādī, Historiography in Islam (2010/1389 SH). The authors consider the cultural and political environment influential in the beginnings of historiography in Islam. They regard the Qurʾan and hadith as the first and most evident motivational sources for historiography in the Islamic period. In addition to introducing the types of Islamic historiography, they have also addressed the methods of compiling and organizing Islamic historiography and the trajectory of historiography in Islamic lands. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_80104.html For a long time, some have maintained that the formation of Shīʿism is related to the events during and after the assassination of ʿUthmān (35 AH). According to this view, it is assumed that from the death of the Prophet (SAWA) (11 AH) until the killing of ʿUthmān, Muslims were united, cohesive, and without disagreement, and that disputes and disagreements only began with ʿUthmān's death. This perspective has been emphasized in numerous works, primarily by those driven by biased and fanatical religious orientations against Shīʿism. ʿAbd al-Nāṣir al-Qaffārī, a contemporary Wahhabi author continuing the anti-Shīʿī ideas of Ibn Taymiyyah al-Ḥarrānī (d. 728 AH) and Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-Najdī (d. 1206 AH), has endeavored to advance this view against the Shīʿa. He has raised this claim in the introduction to one of his books, titled Uṣūl Madhhab al-Shīʿah al-Ithnā ʿAshariyyah: ʿArḍan wa Naqdan (The Principles of the Twelver Shīʿī School: Presentation and Critique), which originated from his doctoral dissertation at King Saud University in Riyadh. In this introduction, he states his intention to present the doctrinal principles of the Twelver Shīʿa and scientifically critique Shīʿī beliefs and history without introducing religious biases. However, his prejudiced language and unscientific method are evident from the outset. Although his views and method in theological and historical debates have been critiqued by Muslim scholars, given that his statements are exploited by many divisive speakers and promoters of discord, a scientific critique of his perspective seems necessary. In explaining the origin and beginning of disagreements among Muslims, al-Qaffārī believes that Muslims after the Prophet's death and before ʿUthmān's assassination, based on "authentic transmitted reports and sound reason", enjoyed harmony, cohesion, and unity. This continued until ʿUthmān was killed amidst the sedition (fitnah) of the deviant and misguided, after which Muslims fell into sectarianism and disagreement.By concealing numerous instances of disagreement and dispute among Muslims in the period between the Prophet's death and ʿUthmān's assassination, he seeks to portray the event of ʿUthmān's killing as the first and most widespread cause of disagreement among Muslims. He attempts to suggest that no disagreements existed over crucial and central issues among Muslims, and that the era of the first and second caliphs was a golden age of unity and cohesion in Islamic history. By citing the statements and views of Ibn Taymiyyah, al-Qaffārī demonstrates his intellectual debt to him and strives to furnish his own view with a credible precedent and foundation. In this borrowing, he attributes the cause of innovations (bidʿah) appearing after ʿUthmān's death to the "ignorance of the ummah" (jahl al-ummah). He identifies two factors for this ignorance in Islamic society of that era: first, "the distance and separation of Muslims from the center of Islamic governance, namely the city of Medina"; and second, "the absence of people of knowledge and faith, i.e., the Companions of the Prophet (SAWA), from among the populace". This article seeks to examine this view and its supporting evidence by relying on primary Shīʿī and Sunnī sources, employing scientific critique and utilizing historical reports.Due to space limitations and to avoid excessive detail and lengthy discussions, this research will rely on a single significant historical event that occurred precisely in the interval between the Prophet's death and ʿUthmān's assassination. It will demonstrate that, firstly, the supposed unity claimed by al-Qaffārī and his predecessors and followers is flawed, and secondly, the evidence presented regarding the cause of disagreement in the affair of ʿUthmān's assassination is disputable and refutable. Shortly after the Prophet's death, a group of Muslims, contrary to the explicit command and recommendation of the Prophet (SAWA) and in the absence of some of his most important close relatives and family members, convened secretly in Saqīfah to appoint a caliph. This event was opposed by a significant number of people and Companions and led to numerous subsequent incidents. This occurred while the event of Saqīfah took place in Medina and involved a group of the Companions. Consequently, neither distance from Medina nor distance from the Companions was the cause of disagreement among Muslims. Rather, not only before ʿUthmān's assassination but in the short interval following the Prophet's death, the greatest sedition and widespread dispute among Muslims was engineered in Medina by some of the Companions themselves. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77512.html Social history is a type of historiography that considers symbols in relation to history in a social context.The main issue and central question in this study is to what extent and how the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) school have affected the non-linguistic symbols of the social life of the people of Sabzevar, which has been a Shiite city and attached to the Ahl al-Bayt from the beginning.The general purpose of the study is to determine the degree of influence of Sabzevar Shiites from the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) in the pre-Safavid period. The practical goal is that by understanding the social life of a Shiite city, it can be used to model the Shiite lifestyle. The research method is developmental based on the purpose and historical-descriptive based on the method and library in terms of data collection.One of the achievements of this research is the antiquity and longevity of Shiite thought in pre-Safavid Iran and that, we find that Shiite thought and the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt have influenced not only the thought, but also the behavior and socio-biology of the people. Estimation and comparison of these components with each other show that spatial symbols have a larger volume and this is in order to preserve and preserve them throughout history. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77541.html The *Risalat al-Huquq* (Treatise on Rights), attributed to Imam al-Sajjad (AS), is one of the valuable resources in explaining Islamic moral and cultural principles and holds a prominent place in religious and legal studies. This work, by presenting comprehensive and human-centered perspectives on rights, plays a significant role in the Islamic intellectual and ethical discourse. Analyzing the authenticity of the documents and comparing different versions of this treatise is crucial in confirming its validity and understanding its content. The present research, aiming to review the available sources and versions of the *Risalat al-Huquq*, examines and analyzes the differences and similarities between various versions and applies documentation criteria to assess its validity. The results of this study indicate that, despite the critical views of some researchers regarding the weakness of its chain of transmission, the valuable evidence and content of this treatise prove its authenticity and confirm its reliability. The findings of this study pave the way for achieving a correct and complete understanding of the content of the *Risalat al-Huquq* and its impact on the legal and cultural spheres of society. It also emphasizes the importance of using this resource in contemporary Islamic society. This treatise plays a key role in linking religious principles with the needs of modern society. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77556.html مفهوم «هویت» از جمله مفاهیمی است که ابعاد مختلف آن مورد توجه اندیشمندان علوم انسانی قرار گرفته است. از زاویه نگاه تاریخی، هویت شیعه امامی، در دوره صادقین(ع) و با اقدامات گسترده و موثر ایشان، از دیگر هویت های جمعی در جهان اسلام تمایزی روشن تر یافت؛ با این حال و به رغم تحقیقات متعدد، می توان گفت از زاویه تعریفی که امروزه اندیشمندان علوم اجتماعی از هویت دارند، هنوز اصل مولفه های درونی هویت شیعه امامی در عصر صادقین(ع) شناسایی نشده است؛ و از این رو تحقیق حاضر، با چنین درکی، ابتدا به تنظیم شاخصه های شناسایی مولفه های هویتی در دوره مورد نظر پرداخته و سپس مبتنی بر توصیف شواهد، به این مساله پاسخ داده است. نتایج تحقیق نشان می دهداین مولفه ها مبتنی بر تعریف و شاخصه های ارائه شده، در دو سطح مرتبط با مباحث توحید و امامت و هفت مولفه درونی هویتی قابل شناسایی است. موضوعی که به دقت پژوهش ها درباره چگونگی شکل گیری هویت و یا هویت بخشی به امامیه در این دوره، می افزاید. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77561.html چکیدهمناسبات علمای جبل عامل با دولت‌ها به‌ویژه دولت صفوی حائز اهمیت بوده و می‌تواند موجب بهره‌برداری علمی و الگو گیری باشد و شاخص این علماء در آن زمان علمایی مانند مرحوم محقق میسی صاحب رساله میسیّه و محقق ثانی و یا محقق کرکی صاحب جامع المقاصد می-باشد. دولت صفوی در ایران با نام ائمه اثنی عشر (ع) توسط شاه اسماعیل اول در تبریز آغاز گردید و با سعی و تلاش پیگیر حکام صفوی برای ترویج تشیع در ایران تداوم پیدا نمود تا آنجا که آن را به یکی از ویژگی‌های برجسته هویت‌بخش برای حکومت صفوی تبدیل نمود. تلاش صفویان برای استقرار شریعت امامیه علمای شیعه را به نحو بی‌سابقه‌ای به عرصه‌های گوناگون اجتماعی و سیاسی وارد نمود، تجربه‌ای که احتمالاً برای اولین بار نصیب این دسته از علماء شد، از سوی دیگر اخذ روایتی اصیل و پرداخته‌شده از معارف شیعی که بتواند طرح استقرار تشیع را ممکن گرداند، حضور جمعی از علمای شیعی غیربومی و عموماً عرب و به‌طور خاص اهل جنوب و جبل عامل لبنان را در جامعه صفوی در پی داشت. شیخ علی بن حسین بن عبدالعالی کرکی (۹۴۰-۸۷۰ هجری قمری) برجسته‌ترین و با نفوذترین این علماء در جامعه و حکومت صفوی در قرن دهم هجری قمری بود، در این پژوهش مناسبات محقق کرکی با حکومت صفوی پرداخته می‌شود. به این منظور به چگونگی تأثیر سیاست‌های مذهبی حکومت صفوی از یک‌سو و تلاش‌های اصیل کرکی برای تثبیت مرجعیت مجتهد در جامعه شیعه امامیه در روند این مناسبات تبیین می‌گردد. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77563.html One of the prominent aspects of the Umayyad period was their policy of hostility towards Imam Ali (AS), which continued throughout the reign of this dynasty, with the exception of the two years of the reign of Omar bin Abdul Aziz. This policy was also applied during the short-lived rule of the Zubayrians, and one of its prominent examples was the slander of that Imam on the pulpit. The research question is: What was the character of Imam Sajjad (AS) in confronting the Umayyad and Zubayrian hostility towards Imam Ali (AS), especially its prominent example, namely, publicly slandering the Commander of the Faithful (AS)? This research arrived at these data using a descriptive-analytical method, which shows that his practical character in this case is divided into two categories: positive and negative. The positive actions of the Imam (AS) included matters such as using the Holy Quran to inform the ignorant slanderers, promoting the virtues of the Commander of the Faithful (AS) in return for slandering him, and his negative actions included matters such as exposing the slanderers on the pulpit and openly rebuking the scholar who openly slandered him. The sum of these actions It influenced the enlightenment of society and the avoidance of certain individuals from speaking ill of the Commander of the Faithful (AS), and later on the abolition of the insults against Imam Ali (AS). https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77565.html The concept of caliphate has been a contentious issue in Muslim political life since the passing of Prophet Mohammad (PBUH). This article critically analyzes a sermon by Imam Hasan (AS) following his peace treaty with Muawiya to elucidate the conditions of a legitimate caliph. Employing Fairclough's critical discourse analysis method, the study investigates how Imam Hasan articulates the criteria for rightful leadership and underscores the religious caliphate over the hereditary caliphate.The analysis reveals that Imam Hasan dismisses lineage as the primary criterion for leadership and instead emphasizes adherence to Sunnah and Qur'anic principles as the fundamental virtues of a caliph. Consequently, a caliph should govern based on Islamic principles. This approach not only contests prevailing notions of power but also accentuates the significance of ethics and social justice within political authority, offering an alternative model of leadership in the Muslim world.Keywords: Caliph, Legitimacy, Imam Hassan, Muawiyah, Critical Discourse Analysis https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77566.html The Umayyad caliphate did not have the necessary and sufficient components to legitimize its rule and established its authority through force and military power. Therefore, from the very beginning, they faced various challenges within the territory under their rule; Stabilizing the foundations of the Umayyad government required agents who were experienced, politicians, repressive and of course obedient and submissive. In this period, the basic approach of the Umayyad rulers was to choose powerful, fanatical governors with extraordinary powers to administer the Islamic lands. Umayyad governors played an important role in legitimizing the Umayyad Caliphate, consolidating and establishing Umayyad rule, continuing conquests, and suppressing anti-Umayyad uprisings. These governors were employed with wide powers, rights and privileges. One of the governors who played an influential role in the Umayyad Caliphate was Rawḥ bin Zenbā’a. The present research will examine the political, administrative and military performance of Rawḥ bin Zenbā’a and explain her role in building the power and politics of the Umayyad government. This research has been done by relying on historical studies and using library resources and using a descriptive-analytical method. The findings of the research show Rawḥ bin Zenbā’a, as one of the main governors of the Umayyad government, was effective in strengthening the authority of the Umayyad government and stabilizing and continuing the Umayyad rule, and played an important role in construction the power and politics of the Umayyad government. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77568.html در فرهنگ مردمان هر سرزمین، غذا جایگاهی ویژه دارد و تنوع آن می‌تواند نشان از غنای فرهنگی، توانمندی اقتصادی و ... داشته باشد. ثبات قدرت با روی کار آمدن خاندان صفوی(1148-907ق) در ایران و رونق‌گیری تجارت، جهانگردان بسیاری را به سوی ایران، روانه کرد. این افراد که با انگیزه‌های سیاسی، فرهنگی، اقتصادی و ... به ایران سفر کرده بودند؛ مشاهدات خویش، در موضوعات مختلف از جمله خوراک و تغذیه ایرانیان را در نوشته‌های خود، منعکس کردند. تحقیق پیش رو، بر آن است تا بر اساس داده‌های سفرنامه‌های بر جای مانده از سیاحان و سفیران اروپایی و با روش توصیفی - تحلیلی، تنوع غذایی مردمان این دوره را مورد بررسی قرار دهد. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد گستره سرزمینی و تنوع آب و هوای ایران، منجر به فراوانی تولیدات کشاورزی و دامپروری و به تبع آن گوناگونی فرآورده‌ها و تنوع غذایی در میان مردمان این عصر شده است و لذا در این سفرنامه‌ها از انواع پلوها ،کباب‌ها، آش‌ها، نان‌ها و... به خصوص در سفره طبقه حاکم یاد شده است. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77569.html With the beginning of the absence of the twelfth Imam, new problems arose for the Shiites that had no precedent before. Due to the suffocation prevailing at that time, the Imamiyyah had suffered a lot of confusion and doubts. In this period, the advocacy institution increased its activity due to the geographical spread of the presence of Shiites. In this situation, the lawyers took measures to maintain the unity of the Shiites. The brokers played an essential role in maintaining the relationship between the Imam and the Shiites by organizing the activities of the agency. This research, using historical-narrative sources, seeks to answer the question, "What actions have the four lawyers taken in order to strengthen Shiite identity and Shiite unity against the political, social and religious challenges of that era?". The findings of this research show that Arbaah lawyers were able to preserve the Shiite identity against internal and external threats by performing practical and executive activities such as managing Islamic funds, promoting religious and jurisprudential teachings, maintaining secret communication networks, emphasizing taqiyyah, and interacting with scientific elites. and prevent the collapse of the Shiite society during the period of minor absence. These measures not only strengthened Shiism in that era, but also provided solid foundations for the continuation of the Shiite school during the Great Absence. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77570.html Familiarizing with Imam Sadiq's behavior with non-Muslims and analyzing the way he interacted with them is of particular importance in order to benefit from his life. The question raised here is as follows: What was the behavior of Imam Sadiq (a.s.) in the face of non-Muslims and what were the causes of such behavior? Analyzing the subject by using advanced sources and using descriptive and analytical methods shows that the behavior of Hazrat Sadiq (a.s.) in dealing with non-Muslims, both the People of the Book and others, is tolerant and in a sense combined with gentleness and avoiding any violence. And it has been sharp. Despite the violence that he sometimes observed in the speech of some of them, he has never deviated from the principle of tolerance and tolerant policy towards them. Imam Sadiq (AS) also called his followers to be tolerant towards non-Muslims. The causes of such behavior towards non-Muslims should be sought in the mission of His Holiness, which was to guide and educate everyone. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77571.html The Niqābat institution was established in the ninth century, during the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258), to handle the affairs of the Sādāt in the Islamic society. This institution has been one of the fundamental pillars in supporting the Alawi Sādāts and Shiite communities in various places. In the Jazeera region, as a geographical area in northern Irāq, which was one of the important border areas of the Islamic Caliphate with the Byzantine Empire, Shiite communities have lived alternately in historical periods and in its various cities and regions. In addition to the rule of several Shiite governments in this region, centers of immigrant Alawis were also formed. Handling the affairs of the Shiite Sādāts of the Jazeera was carried out through the Niqābat organization and the Naqib Alawi family. The aim of this research is to investigate the Naqib Alawi families and their niqābat functions in the Jazeera in serving the Sādāts and Shiite Imamiyyah groups, using a library method and a descriptive-analytical approach. The research findings show that the Niqābat al-Tālebiyyin in the Jazeera worked to protect the Sādāts (Tālebiyyin) in terms of lineage, to preserve their dignity and status in society, to handle the Sādāts' affairs and to supervise them. The presence of Alawis and Shiites in the Jazeera has caused the scope of this institution's activities to that region, and some Alawi families have held the position of Niqābat. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77572.html Analysis of social behavior in crisis conditions requires a simultaneous examination of individual motivations and environmental factors. The Tabuk expedition, with its religious, social, and political challenges, provided an opportunity to distinguish between the believers and the hypocrites from the perspectives of intention (internal motivation) and incapacity (external conditions). This study examines the reciprocal role of internal and external motivations in shaping individual and collective behaviors and analyzes the reasons behind the non-participation of various groups. The primary objective of the article is to elucidate the complex interaction between psychological factors (such as personal interests and fear) and environmental conditions (such as social pressures and financial constraints) in either aligning with or contradicting the goals of the Islamic community. The research method is based on content analysis of historical Islamic sources (Quranic exegesis and prophetic biographies) and aligning them with the theoretical framework of motivation theory, with a particular emphasis on the dual dimensions of internal and external motivation. The results indicate that achieving a balance between internal and external motivations and creating an environment that supports sustained motivation leads to increased resilience, creativity, and productivity; whereas the internal motivations of the hypocrites (such as self-interest and hostility toward socio-religious objectives) and external conditions that promote discord predominantly influence their decisions, while the decisions of the believers are more affected by external incapacities. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77574.html Political systems and domination structures arising from the text of human societies are formed either by relying on force, or on the basis of financial possession, or on the basis of religious ideas; By whatever method they gain power, they need two main indicators of legitimacy and acceptability. legitimacy; In fact, the validity and competence of the power structure on the part of religious ideas (including transcendental and mythological beliefs, polytheism and monotheism), and acceptability; Indeed, it is accepted by the people. Therefore, every political and governmental system needs both of them to continue its life. The Umayyads are the first dynastic government that reached the caliphate in the first Islamic era. Since the Umayyads achieved the caliphate with military power, they always faced political and social challenges in stabilizing their rule. This issue was more apparent in the Marwanian era and caused political and social tensions with political opponents and rivals. The present study, with a historical approach and descriptive analytical method, seeks to answer what methods did the Marwani rulers use to solve the crisis of legitimacy? The findings of the research show that, in order to contain the internal uprisings and reduce the crisis of legitimacy, the Marwani rulers resorted to creating hadiths attributed to the Prophet (PBUH) with the help of related narrators in order to make the Umayyad government appear legitimate. Key words: Marwanians, legitimacy, acceptability, hadith creation, consecration of caliphate, consecration of Shaam. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77891.html Detailed Abstract:Social trust is one of the key concepts in social sciences. As an essential factor in social action, interpersonal relationships, and human interactions, it paves the way for participation and cooperation among members of society and assists individuals in achieving their social goals. Since social trust leads to successful collective action and the expansion of social capital, it has always been of interest to sociologists and political thinkers. Social trust is the result of the community’s belief in an individual or individuals distinguished from others by their moral traits and personal characteristics, who have succeeded in gaining the attention and trust of society through their conduct.The personality of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), his moral attributes, and behavioral characteristics played a significant role in gaining people's trust in the Islamic call and were a determining factor in the rapid advancement of the Arabs and the spread of Islam in the traditional and tribal society of Arabia. Anthony Giddens is among the sociologists who focused on social trust in traditional societies. He identified four key areas that contribute to building social trust in pre-modern communities: kinship, local systems, religion, and rituals.This study aims to answer the question: What role did social trust play in the Prophet's (PBUH) mission during the Meccan period? The findings of this research—based on library sources and conducted using a historical and descriptive-analytical method—show that the four areas of social trust emphasized by Giddens were present in Mecca. The society’s trust in the Prophet was of a fundamental and interpersonal nature. In the early stage of the prophetic mission, this trust was on a micro level but laid the foundation for intertribal trust. This development helped elevate trust from the micro to the macro level, expanded the scope of social interactions, and broadened communication networks.Giddens' theory that basic trust or ontological security serves as the foundation for other types of trust—and implies a willingness to accept possible outcomes—can be seen in the early actions of the Prophet’s companions, such as accompanying him in the hardships of the Shi'b Abi Talib, and in the migrations to Abyssinia and Medina.The local systems of the Arabian Peninsula were based on kinship and tribal structures. Traditions formed in the region (like ḥimā, jiwār, alliances, and treaties), which emerged from geographical and climatic conditions and tribal life, also played a significant role in fostering social trust. Elements such as kinship relations, tribal structure, tribal support, laws, customs, and traditions in Meccan society were crucial in advancing the Prophet’s goals and gaining trust during the early years of his mission.Religious beliefs and rituals are other factors Giddens considers important in establishing trust in traditional societies. Hajj and its associated ceremonies, along with the sacred months, were respected and trusted by Arabs before and after Islam. The Prophet relied on these occasions to make his call public during Hajj and later planned his journey to Mecca during the Hajj season after migrating to Medina.Keywords: Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Meccan Period, Social Trust, Anthony Giddens, Islam https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_77899.html Components of Iranian identity.in the local historys of the Ilkhanate era.AbstractHistoriography has a direct relationship with identity. With the collaps of the Sasanids, Iranians although accepting Islam revised and reconstructed their identity; but this did not mean the negation of previous heritages or their adaptation to the teachings of the new religion, but these continued to existion the culture and collective identity of Iranians and mainly in the context of history and literature, and thus a hybrid identity under the titie of Iranian _Islamic identity in Iran become the ruler. Due to the break of identity in Iranian society during the Ilkhans period, the activities of Iranian historians, especially local writers, became more active in the service of revial and continuity of Iranian identity. Refering to the works of local writers of this period indicates that elements such as religious identity, language and literaturesocial,social integration and geographical coherence.This article is done with a descriptive-analytical approach and by posing this main question that; what effect did the transformation in the historiography of the Ilkhanate era have on the attention of local historian to the components of Iranian.Key word:Identity, Local historys, Ilkhanate, Islamic religion, Iranian identity. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_78961.html The Ghaznavid Turks came to power by exploiting the relationships within the Samanid society, and thus a new era of foreign (Turkic) rule over Iran began. Although the Ghaznavids were unfamiliar with the political culture of Iran or the political thought of ancient Iran and had no idea of ​​legitimate rule or the legitimizing components of government according to Iranshahri policy, the reaction of the Iranian administrative elites who served this dynasty to this transfer of power from an Iranian dynasty (the Samanids) to a Turkic dynasty (the Ghaznavids) can be traced. One of the most important tools for producing and justifying legitimacy was historiography, and historians, with their knowledge of the culture of society and the needs and challenges facing governments, used this tool to create and consolidate the legitimacy of governments. As a historian-secretary in the service of the new dynasty, Bayhaqi, by writing his history, tries to place or include Sultan Masoud in the position of an ideal Iranian king by assigning the requirements and attributes of an ideal Iranian king to him, and to make Masoud's reign legitimate and justified, on the one hand, due to conflicts within the Ghaznavid dynasty (successorship conflicts after the death of Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznavi) and on the other hand for the Iranian audience (in order to accept a Turkish or non-Iranian government). The purpose of this research is not a historical account of Masoud's appearance and performance, but rather how his personality is reflected in Bayhaqi's historical text and to identify the meaning and purpose that results from the specific way in which Sultan Masoud's personality is reflected as an ideal king in this text. Based on this, the question of this research is about how the appearance, personality, and performance of Sultan Masoud of Ghaznavi are reflected in Bayhaqi's historiography. This article, using the method of historical studies and using a descriptive and analytical approach, shows that Bayhaqi, as a historian secretary in the service of the Ghaznavid ruling family, had a special view of the construction of an ideal-Iranian monarchy using the model of Iranshahri thought. Bayhaqi's justifications and arguments for Sultan Masoud of Ghaznavi's lack of royal lineage, presenting evidence and data both in a formal and content-based manner in order to present him as a nobleman, and assigning some physical traits under the title of body development such as archery, horsemanship, and spear throwing, and some intellectual traits such as knowledge, friendship, and knowledge-gathering, having skills in writing, speaking, and awareness of the techniques and rituals of statecraft, and some moral traits such as justice, chivalry, and loyalty to the treaty, generosity, and people-orientedness to Sultan Masoud, were all in line with the processing of his image and personality in the position of an ideal Iranian monarch and with the aim of legitimizing him. The findings of the research show that Bayhaqi, with his knowledge of the content of Pahlavi sources and Islamic chronicles, and even Ferdowsi's Shahnameh regarding Iranshahri politics, makes a conscious effort to draw and present to the audience a portrait of Sultan Masoud Ghaznavi that is completely taken from the template and model of the ideal king in Iranshahri thought. The application of this Iranshahri model in Bayhaqi's history, four centuries after the collapse of the Sasanian government, indicates the continuity of the identity of Iranian thought and its function during the Abbasid Caliphate and the Turkic governments in Iranian society in the fifth century AH. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_79910.html Abstract:The changes in societies are directly related to the way of governance and management. In 23 AH, Uthman bin Affan assumed the caliphate and leadership of the Islamic society. The difference in his leadership style with the previous caliphs, especially the era of the Messenger of God9, led to the beginning of protests against the ruling government. . And finally, the year 35 AH ended with the rebellion and assassination of the Caliph. The question that arises is why, despite the model of efficient management and leadership in the prophetic period, the rule of the third caliph faced many challenges?The researches carried out in this regard have dealt with the causes that are the result of ineffective leadership and management style, therefore, in this research, it has been tried with the historical-analytical method and with the help of management science in the way of using the resources of leadership power. legal power, power of authority, power of punishment and encouragement, power of expertise) in the leadership style to analyze the events, the studies carried out show the lack of proper use of power sources, especially the power of authority (personality) and the power of authority. The caliph faced a decrease in trust and influence, and in addition to the rebellion and murder of the third caliph, the Islamic society faced new developments.Key words: Osman bin Affan, governance, sources of power.The changes in societies are directly related to the way of governance and management. In 23 AH, Uthman bin Affan assumed the caliphate and leadership of the Islamic society. The difference in his leadership style with the previous caliphs, especially the era of the Messenger of God9, led to the beginning of protests against the ruling government. . And finally, the year 35 AH ended with the rebellion and assassination of the Caliph. The question that arises is why, despite the model of efficient management and leadership in the prophetic period, the rule of the third caliph faced many challenges?The researches carried out in this regard have dealt with the causes that are the result of ineffective leadership and management style, therefore, in this research, it has been tried with the historical-analytical method and with the help of management science in the way of using the resources of leadership power. legal power, power of authority, power of punishment and encouragement, power of expertise) in the leadership style to analyze the events, the studies carried out show the lack of proper use of power sources, especially the power of authority (personality) and the power of authority. The caliph faced a decrease in trust and influence, and in addition to the rebellion and murder of the third caliph, the Islamic society faced new developments.Key words: Osman bin Affan, governance, sources of power.The changes in societies are directly related to the way of governance and management. In 23 AH, Uthman bin Affan assumed the caliphate and leadership of the Islamic society. The difference in his leadership style with the previous caliphs, especially the era of the Messenger of God9, led to the beginning of protests against the ruling government. . And finally, the year 35 AH ended with the rebellion and assassination of the Caliph. The question that arises is why, despite the model of efficient management and leadership in the prophetic period, the rule of the third caliph faced many challenges?The researches carried out in this regard have dealt with the causes that are the result of ineffective leadership and management style, therefore, in this research, it has been tried with the historical-analytical method and with the help of management science in the way of using the resources of leadership power. legal power, power of authority, power of punishment and encouragement, power of expertise) in the leadership style to analyze the events, the studies carried out show the lack of proper use of power sources, especially the power of authority (personality) and the power of authority. The caliph faced a decrease in trust and influence, and in addition to the rebellion and murder of the third caliph, the Islamic society faced new developments.Key words: Osman bin Affan, governance, sources of power. https://hiq.bou.ac.ir/article_79973.html The conquest of Baghdad in 334 AH by the Buyid government with Shiite tendencies is considered a turning point in the political history of the Shiites. The geography of Baghdad during this period included various populations with different languages and cultures, such as Arabs, Persians, Daylamites, Turks and Kurds, who lived in this city. Alongside these tribes, various religions and sects, such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Imami Shia, Zaydi Shia, Shafi'i Sunni, Hanbali Sunni, Hanafi Sunni and Maliki Sunni, were active, and they had many differences with each other. These differences, which were mostly between the Shiites and the Sunni sects, especially the Hanbalites, in some cases led to bloody conflicts. The Abbasid Caliphate also sided with the Sunnis in all disputes and on several occasions attempted to suppress the Shiites and destroy their famous mosque called Baratha. After capturing the city, Mu'ad al-Dawla Ahmad, the conqueror of Baghdad, treated the Shiites, including the Zaidis and the Imamis, with appropriate behavior. With the power he had, he neutralized the hostile actions of the caliphs and followers of Sunni sects against the Shiites and left them free to perform their religious rituals. He celebrated the martyrdom ceremony of Imam Hussein (AS) on the day of Ashura with particular enthusiasm and mobilized the government organs to better organize this ceremony. Holding the Ghadir Khum festival and visiting the graves of the pure Imams were other actions of Mu'ad al-Dawla in support of the Shiites. Of course, he also treated other sects and heavenly religions with tolerance and tolerance, and left them free to perform their religious rituals, but favoritism towards the Shiites was evident in his behavior and actions. This approach was also followed during the reign of his son, Izz al-Dawlah Bakhtiar. For the first time, during Izz al-Dawlah's reign, Shiites were allowed to publicly recite "Hayy ali khair al-amal" in their prayers. However, due to his incompetence in governing the Shiites during this period, they suffered a lot of damage. Therefore, the present article seeks to answer the question of what similarities and differences existed between the approaches of Mu'ad al-Dawlah Ahmad and Izz al-Dawlah Bakhtiar in dealing with the Shiites of Baghdad, and why were the conditions of the Shiites better during Mu'ad al-Dawlah's reign than during Izz al-Dawlah's? According to the findings of this research, both Buyid rulers, despite their religious tolerance, intended to support the Shiites more than other sects. Mu'ad al-Dawlah accomplished this goal well with the power he had; The Shiites gained great influence during his reign. In addition to freely practicing their religious rituals, they also held positions in the Baghdad government, and two of the emirs of the Hajj of the caliphate were elected from among the Shiites for the first time. However, Izz al-Dawlah, due to his inability to manage affairs, spread religious chaos, which greatly harmed the Shiites. Their neighborhoods were burned by extremist Sunnis, who were mostly from the Hanbali religious sect. A large number of Shiites were killed, and prosperity and development in the wealthy Shiite neighborhood of Karkh disappeared, and the merchants of this region fled. This research was conducted with a descriptive-analytical approach and aimed at analyzing the approach of Mu'ad al-Dawlah and Izz al-Dawlah in confronting the Shiites of Baghdad.